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20 minutes

Recognising hate speech and taking action

Anyone who spends time online will come across hate speech sooner or later. Around a quarter of the Swiss population is regularly affected by it. Among young people, the figure is actually twice as high. How can we protect ourselves and our children from the negative effects of hate speech? We’ll show you how to recognise hate speech, why people engage in it, and what you can do about it.

Go directly to topic

What exactly is hate speech?

Hate speech and its consequences

Reasons for hate speech: And why would anyone do that?

Protect yourself and your child from hate speech

Showing moral courage: How to counter hate speech with a counter-argument

Have you or your child been affected by hate speech?

Hate speech and Swiss law

Points of contact for hate speech

Further content

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You will find these topics on this page:

We draw a distinction between hate speech, cyberbullying, rudeness and the legitimate expression of opinion.
Hate speech does not only have a negative impact on those directly affected. It also has negative consequences for other readers and even for democracy itself.
What does research say about the motivation of those who engage in hate speech?
What crucial role do empathy and counter-speech play?
And what preventive measures can be taken?

Hate knows no boundaries – not even online

Definition

What exactly is hate speech?

You’ll come across hate speech online in various forms. This can sometimes make it difficult to identify. Sometimes the hatred is obvious; other times it’s so cleverly disguised that it’s barely noticeable. We’ll show you how to spot it in every case.

You can recognise hate speech by these three criteria:

Hate speech refers to any form of communication that targets individuals …
… on the basis of their identity characteristics (e.g. appearance, sexual orientation, background, skin colour and nationality) …
… and attacks, denigrates or excludes them. Only when all these criteria are met is a statement considered to be hate speech.

Only when all these criteria are met is a statement considered to be hate speech.

Hate speech stokes hostility, can divide society and even incite violence. This is most evident in offensive comments or threats posted beneath posts:

‘Hey, bumblebee, with your fat belly and tiny wings, you’re not allowed to fly with us!’

Another form of hate speech is hate memes. And hate speech is also increasingly appearing as deepfakes. These are deceptively realistic AI-generated images or videos. Conspiracy theories can also contain hate speech if they create negative stereotypes of certain groups.

Hate speech or cyberbullying?

Not every derogatory comment online is automatically hate speech:

Hate speech: All three of the criteria mentioned above must be met. It is directed against people (or groups of people) on the basis of their identity, stirs up hostility and may incite violence.

Cyberbullying: This is bullying online and targets individual people on a personal level. It usually takes place in a semi-public space such as a class chat group, a sports group or in the workplace.

The two can overlap. For example, when a child is bullied at school because of their background. Bullying often lasts for a longer period of time than hate speech.

Not always obvious at first glance

When hate speech is disguised as humour (‘It’s only a joke!’), it suddenly seems harmless. The tone may sound light-hearted, but the content is not. Memes are a good example: seemingly funny images often conceal derogatory messages.

Sometimes, however, the choice of words in a statement is enough on its own. Certain terms (e.g. ‘invasion by [group of people]’) automatically conjure up images of threat.

And the platforms themselves also play a role. Their algorithms specifically promote polarising content because it triggers a lot of reactions and thus increases user engagement. Anyone constantly exposed to the same hate speech runs the risk of becoming radicalised.

Topic

Hate speech and its consequences

Hate speech spreads negativity online and, as a result, affects far more people than just the person at whom the hate is directed. The negative effects of hate speech are far-reaching for those affected, the perpetrators and bystanders alike, and impact society as a whole.

Silencing: When hate speech is silenced

When only a few people voice their opinions loudly and assertively, whilst everyone else remains silent, it creates a false impression: it seems as though the majority shares that view. Most of the time, however, this is simply not the case. Nevertheless, other readers who disagree often no longer dare to speak up.

And even those who are being abused often withdraw for their own protection. As a result, only one opinion remains visible. And that opinion grows ever louder online. In this way, hate speech ensures that many people no longer express their opinions freely.

Freedom of expression and its limits

Hate speech is often justified on the grounds of freedom of expression: ‘Surely we’re still allowed to say that.’ But freedom of expression is not a free pass. The choice of words in a statement is crucial. For example:

	‘I think too many migrants are coming into the country.’	‘Refugees are dangerous and don’t belong here.’
Criteria 1: Communication?
Criteria 2: On the basis of an identity characteristic?
Criteria 3: Aggressive, derogatory or exclusionary?
	No hate speech	Hate speech

Freedom of expression is a fundamental right and an important cornerstone of a democracy such as Switzerland’s. Our democracy thrives on ensuring that as many people as possible are heard and that different opinions can coexist openly. When individual voices are intimidated or silenced altogether by hate speech, this poses a problem for democracy.

Disinformation and hate speech

Fake news and targeted disinformation are also closely linked to hate speech. Fake news often arises from ignorance or carelessness. For example, when someone spreads false information without meaning any harm.

Example of fake news: Following an act of violence, a photo circulates online claiming that the perpetrator belongs to a particular group. Someone shares this in outrage, without realising that this claim is completely untrue. By sharing it (without first checking the information), that person reinforces the stereotype.

Disinformation, on the other hand, is deliberately circulated*. For example, to influence opinions, discredit certain groups, divide society or undermine trust in key institutions.

Example of disinformation: Ahead of a vote, a fabricated ‘report’ surfaces which blames a specific group for rising crime, using made-up figures. Such ‘facts’ are deliberately spread to stir up sentiment against the group.

Anyone who can recognise fake news and disinformation will also see through hate speech more quickly.

*Source: stophatespeech.ch(opens in new tab) (German)

Topic

Reasons for hate speech:
And why would anyone do that?

There are various reasons why people spread hate online. An international research team (including the PH Bern) surveyed Swiss teenagers from 19 German-speaking schools who had themselves previously spread hate speech. The findings were published in 2022 in the journal Comunicar(opens in new tab).

A total of 1,035 young people took part in the study. Just under 75 per cent of them stated that they did not spread hate speech. The remaining 346 young people, aged between 12 and 18, were asked in more detail about their reasons. This revealed six key motives, listed here in order from most common to least common:

Revenge: passing on the hurt

Around a third of young people engaged in hate speech because they themselves had been angry, hurt or annoyed. In this context, hate speech is a spontaneous reaction to something that feels, or felt, unfair. Those who have experienced hatred or bullying themselves as children or young people often pass on this experience and thus become perpetrators themselves.

Prevention: Empower young people to deal with anger and frustration and to manage conflicts. For example, by talking together about feelings and finding healthy ways to relieve frustration.

Ideology: out of conviction

Young people with this motive are convinced of their hateful statements because they align with their political or ideological views. For example, they speak disparagingly about a particular group and believe they are simply telling the truth. In the study, girls agreed with this motive more often than boys.

Prevention: Promote political education, teach pupils to check sources and encourage them to engage with democratic values. Schools can make a real difference here.

Group conformity: peer pressure and status

Some young people insult others in order to belong to the ‘cool’ group. One of the greatest fears people have is being excluded. So anyone who joins in with the cool group’s bullying is also protecting themselves from suddenly being counted amongst the ‘uncool’. It is particularly important for young people to feel they belong.

Prevention: Foster a classroom atmosphere where diversity is the norm and everyone talks to one another.

Fun: because it makes you feel good

A small proportion of those surveyed find hate speech funny or feel good when engaging in it. It is often presented as a joke: ‘It was just a bit of fun!’ However, this also includes cases where someone takes pleasure in seeing others suffer.

Prevention: Empathy exercises to help perpetrators understand the impact their behaviour has on others.

Power: feeling superior

The least frequently cited motive has particularly serious consequences: those who feel powerful and superior as a result of hate speech often exert pressure on others in order to maintain this sense of power.

Prevention: Clearly highlight the consequences of such behaviour and how those around them react to it.

What else the study reveals: Whether young people engage in hate speech or not depends less on prohibitions (such as those imposed by parents or teachers) and more on their own social environment. Recognition, social pressure and peer influence play a major role. In other words:

If hate speech is considered normal in the classroom or amongst friends, more young people will join in – even if everyone knows that it isn’t actually okay.

Anyone who is frequently exposed to hate speech runs the risk of engaging in it themselves at some point. Whether it comes to that depends primarily on two factors, as a further international study(opens in new tab) shows:

Empathy offers protection. Those who can put themselves in others’ shoes are less likely to be swept up in the tide and are less likely to become perpetrators themselves.
Moral disengagement, on the other hand, reinforces the pull towards hate speech. This refers to thoughts such as ‘it’s their own fault’, ‘they’re not normal anyway’ or ‘it wasn’t meant that badly’.

As a parent, it’s best to keep an eye on these two factors. More on this in the next section.

Tips

Protect yourself and your child from hate speech

During adolescence, it is not only one’s world view that changes, but also the brain. The prefrontal cortex (the part of the brain responsible for self-control, long-term thinking and critical judgement) does not fully develop until young adulthood. This is why content that triggers strong emotions appeals particularly to young people. This is exactly what hate speech does.

Young people are in the process of discovering their own values, finding their political bearings and figuring out who they are. Anyone who is exposed to a lot of hate speech during this phase (whether as a victim or as a bystander) will be deeply affected by it.

The best thing you can do as a parent is to talk to your child about this at an early stage. People who are informed are less easily influenced. Here are a few ways you can approach this:

Use real-life situations to start a conversation

Use real-life examples (e.g. a news headline, an argument in a class chat group or a current meme) to talk about hate speech. This is the best way to connect with your child.

Show interest rather than lecturing

Ask open, inquisitive questions, such as: ‘If someone were to post something like that in your class chat, how would you react?’ Listen carefully, rather than lecturing them.

Talk about algorithms

What appears in the feed is no coincidence, but is calculated. The platforms primarily show content that attracts a lot of attention. And hate attracts a great deal of it. As a result, hate speech is automatically widely disseminated, even where it is banned.

Why not have a scroll through your child’s feed with them and talk about what comes up and why? Also try out ways to influence the algorithm: report content, like other posts or actively search for different opinions.

Teach them to check sources

Who is actually behind a piece of content? This question is relevant not only when it comes to hate speech, but also to fake news and disinformation. If you can assess sources, you’ll see through a lot of things much more quickly.

Activate parental controls

Filters like these ensure that your child is less likely to come into contact with inappropriate content, such as hate speech. This reduces the risk of them being negatively influenced by it.

Watch out for phrases that numb their conscience

Researchers refer to it as ‘moral disengagement’ when young people come up with internal justifications for hate speech. Typical examples include:

‘It’s their own fault – anyone who posts something like that has to expect it.’
“They’re not exactly normal, are they?”
“I didn’t really mean it that badly.”
“It’s none of my business what other people do.”
“That’s just how we talk around here.”

When you hear comments like that, ask them straight away: ‘What do you mean by “it’s their own fault”? How would you feel if someone had said that about you?’ This will help your child realise what lies behind such thoughts.

Practise empathy

Work together to find examples where someone has responded to hatred in a friendly and empathetic way, and discuss why that works so well. Ideally, your child will learn to do this themselves.

And if your child says, ‘But that’s what everyone does/thinks!’, ask them in return: ‘Who is “everyone”? And how do you see it yourself, without your friends?’ This way, your child will learn to develop their own perspective.

Encourage them without overwhelming them

Make it clear to your child that they don’t have to save the whole world or contradict everything they see. Sometimes it’s enough simply to recognise hate speech and report or block the content.

Be a role model

Your child picks up on how you react. Often without you even realising it. So do bear this in mind: how do you deal with hate speech yourself? And how do you talk to your child?

Protect privacy

Anyone who speaks out publicly sometimes draws hatred towards themselves. That’s why it’s worth being careful: don’t reveal any personal details, stay anonymous and check your privacy settings (for example, keep your profile private, don’t use your real name, don’t share your location, and don’t provide any information about your school or where you live).

If your child is affected

Some groups are targeted much more frequently than others. According to the BAKOM study(opens in new tab), for example, non-binary people, people with disabilities and people with a non-heterosexual sexual orientation are affected more often. If your child belongs to one of these groups, it may help to address the issue at an early stage. Find out more in the section: Are you or your child affected by hate speech?

Topic

Showing moral courage:
How to counter hate speech with a counter-argument

If you come across hate speech online, you might ask yourself: does it actually make any difference if I speak out against it? The answer is: yes. A clear and empathetic response (also known as ‘counter-speech’) always makes a difference. By doing so, you’re countering the hate and showing everyone reading that there’s also a different, tolerant point of view.

Although many readers reject hate speech, very few actually speak out against it. Most remain silent so as not to leave themselves open to attack. That is understandable. But if everyone remains silent, it looks as though the majority condones the hate. And that is precisely what makes it even stronger.

The more pushback, the better

A study(opens in new tab) from 2024, involving nearly 600 participants, investigated how effective speaking out is. At first glance, the result seems sobering: a single dissenting voice does little to change how serious a hate speech situation is perceived to be.

However, as soon as several people speak out together, the impact increases rapidly. A single counter-voice is therefore never in vain. It breaks the silence and makes it easier for others to join in. That is why every voice counts.

How to successfully challenge the narrative

Here are a few tips on how to phrase a counter-argument so that it’s effective whilst still remaining respectful.

Responding with empathy (empathetic counter-response)

People who are good at putting themselves in others’ shoes are less likely to spread hate themselves. Even if they are constantly exposed to it. Empathy therefore protects against hate speech, even when used in counter-speech.

That is why empathetic counter-speech is considered the most effective means of combating hate speech. It shows how those affected feel, thereby prompting the perpetrators to reflect on their actions.

In a study by ETH Zurich and the University of Zurich (in collaboration with Stop Hate Speech), some perpetrators even deleted their hateful comments afterwards. Other users were also less likely to share or ‘like’ the hate speech.

Example: ‘Can you imagine how hurtful this comment is to [affected group]?’ (Example from Stop Hate Speech)

Stick to the facts

Getting angry and firing back with insults is not a counter-argument. Instead, respond with facts and remain objective.

Example: ‘That’s just an assertion. These figures show something different: …’

Show solidarity

Sometimes it’s enough simply to take a clear stance and say that the comment isn’t acceptable. This sets the stage for a thoughtful response.

Example: ‘I don’t think that comment is acceptable. / That’s not my opinion.’

Further information: The leaflet published by Swiss Crime Prevention, ‘Please get involved’(opens in new tab), shows that harmonious coexistence only works if everyone is prepared to stand up for democratic values and show moral courage.

Topic

Have you or your child been affected by hate speech?

Has anyone attacked, belittled or excluded you or your child online – because of certain aspects of your identity? If so, don’t just put up with it – take action and report it.

Here's what you can do

Speak out: Make it clear that you do not agree with this statement about yourself.
Save evidence: Take photos, videos and screenshots before the content is deleted. This way, you’ll have evidence in case you need to report it later. Keep them to yourself so you can hand them over to the police if necessary.
Report and block: Use the platform’s report buttons, block the person and report illegal content on clickandstop.ch(opens in new tab).
Do not share: Even if it’s difficult: do not forward the content, not even with an indignant comment. Every time you share it, you only increase the reach of the hate speech. In the worst case, you could even make yourself liable to prosecution.
Protect your privacy: Set your profile to private and remove publicly visible details such as your real name, place of residence or school. This prevents the perpetrators from gaining further access to you or your child.
Seek help: If you face a specific threat, contact the police and get in touch with a counselling service. If you wish to take legal action, it is important to know that hate speech is usually a complaint-based offence. This means that only the person affected can file a complaint, and they must do so within three months.

Further information is available from the Swiss Crime Prevention Organisation(opens in new tab).

What if my child becomes a perpetrator?

‘My child would never do something like that!’ Or perhaps they would? Yes, that does happen too. Here’s how to deal with it:

Stay calm and try to talk it through. Try to understand what’s behind it. Is it peer pressure? Is your child trying to provoke others? Or is there a firm conviction behind it?
Make the consequences clear. The internet is not a lawless space. Hate speech can have not only social and professional consequences, but legal ones too.
Encourage reflection. Ask your child how their comments are received by others. Do they attack someone because of certain characteristics, belittle them or exclude them?
Encourage understanding and take action. If your child realises they’ve gone too far, encourage them to apologise. And, if possible, to make amends for what has happened.
Protect them from toxic spaces. People who are frequently exposed to hate speech are more likely to engage in it themselves at some point(opens in new tab). Encourage your child to avoid such places online. This way, hate speech becomes less of a norm and your child is less likely to engage in it themselves.
Strengthen empathy. People who are good at putting themselves in others’ shoes treat them with greater respect. This helps to break down barriers of distance and indifference.
Involve specialist organisations. If a fixed attitude begins to emerge or if you’d like some support, get in touch with one of the recommended specialist organisations.

Context

Hate speech and Swiss law

Where does freedom of expression end and criminal law begin? In Switzerland, this boundary is often higher than one might think.

There are several laws that protect people affected by hate speech. The most important laws are:

Section 261 of the Swiss Criminal Code (StGB): Discrimination and incitement to hatred
This section protects people from attacks on the grounds of their race, ethnicity, religion or sexual orientation. It safeguards public order and the dignity of all people. This dignity is violated, for example, when someone is portrayed as inferior or is even denied the status of a fully-fledged human being.
Go to the legal provision(opens in new tab)
Art. 173 et seq. StGB: Defamation
Anyone who damages a person’s reputation, for example through defamation, may also be liable to prosecution.
Go to the legal provision(opens in new tab)
Art. 28 et seq. ZBG: Protection of personality
Violations of personality rights can also be pursued through civil law. Further information can be found in the SKP brochure ‘Your Own Image: Everything You Need to Know’(opens in new tab).
Go to the legal provision(opens in new tab)
Art. 8 of the Federal Constitution: Equality before the law
The Federal Constitution also provides protection against discrimination on the grounds of gender, age, language, social status, lifestyle, ideological or political beliefs, and physical, mental or psychological disability.
Go to the legal provision(opens in new tab)

Further information: The legal situation and criminal proceedings relating to hate speech(opens in new tab).

And even if hate speech isn’t a criminal offence in your case, you’re never completely at its mercy: almost all platforms prohibit hate speech in their terms and conditions. You can therefore almost always report such content and block people, regardless of the legal situation. If you’re unsure whether a particular law applies in your case, please contact the following organisations.

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Points of contact for hate speech

If you are looking for advice or wish to report an incident, we recommend the following organisations and services:

This is important

Hate speech is not a marginal phenomenon. Just under 70 per cent of the Swiss population have already encountered it. For many young people, it is part of everyday digital life.
Silence fuels hatred. If no one speaks out against it, it appears as though the majority agree with the hate speech. Every dissenting voice breaks this silence and makes it easier for others to join in.
Counter-speech works, especially when it is empathetic and collective. It does not convince those who spread hate, but it empowers silent bystanders and shows those affected that they are not alone.
Prevention starts at home. Talk to your child about algorithms, toxic online spaces and empathy. And remember: you’re always a role model.
You’re not powerless. Not all hate speech is a criminal offence. But you can still report it, block it or seek advice. When in doubt: take action rather than put up with it.